Destination Jordan
The History and Culture of Jordan: A Land Between Antiquity and Modernity
Jordan, a country with a rich history and breathtaking nature, has been a crossroads for various cultures and civilizations for millennia. From prehistoric settlements to the Roman Empire and the Islamic era, the country reflects a unique blend of tradition and modernity. Today, Jordan is a popular destination for history and nature lovers who wish to explore its impressive ruined cities, religious sites, and natural wonders. Modern-day Jordan lies in a region that has been inhabited for thousands of years and plays a central role in the history of the Middle East.
Prehistory and Antiquity
The earliest human settlements in Jordan date back to the Paleolithic period. Archaeological findings from this time confirm that hunters and gatherers roamed the region, using primitive stone tools. Noteworthy discoveries from Wadi Rum and the Azraq Oasis indicate continuous settlement during the middle and late Paleolithic eras.
With the transition to the Neolithic period (around 10,000–4,500 BC), humans began to settle down and establish the first agricultural communities.
One of the most important archaeological sites is Ain Ghazal near Amman, one of the largest Neolithic settlements in the Middle East. Here, impressive gypsum statuettes were found, which are among the oldest known figurative representations in human history. The people of Ain Ghazal practiced agriculture and livestock farming, indicating an advanced level of social organization.
During the Bronze Age (ca. 3300–1200 BC), the region was inhabited by various Semitic peoples. The first city-states developed, establishing trade contacts with Egypt and Mesopotamia. One of the most famous sites from this period is the area around the Dead Sea, which is associated with the biblical cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. According to biblical tradition, these cities were destroyed by divine fire due to their corruption. Archaeological findings near the modern sites of Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira suggest that Bronze Age settlements indeed existed here, which were destroyed by natural catastrophes.
The Bronze Age was also a period of intense trade activity. Jordan was situated on key trade routes connecting Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. The region was rich in natural resources, such as copper, which was mined in the Feynan area in the southern part of the country. This metal was of great importance in the production of weapons and tools, contributing to the region’s strategic role in the ancient trade network.
During the late Bronze Age, Jordan came under the influence of the Egyptian pharaohs, who maintained trade relations with the region and may have also controlled vassal states. This period marked increased interaction between Egypt and the Levant, with Jordan playing a key role as a crossroads for trade and cultural exchange between Egypt, Mesopotamia, and other neighboring civilizations. The presence of Egyptian artifacts and influence in archaeological sites in Jordan further supports this connection.
During the Iron Age (approximately 1200–332 BC), several kingdoms emerged, including Ammon, Moab, and Edom.
These kingdoms are mentioned in biblical and Mesopotamian sources. They had close relations with neighboring civilizations such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, who repeatedly controlled the region.
Hellenistic and Roman Period
After the conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, present-day Jordan came under Greek influence. After Alexander’s death, the region was ruled by the Seleucids and later by the Nabataeans.
The Nabataeans founded the famous Petra, a city known for its impressive rock-cut architecture and its economic significance.
In 106 AD, the Nabataean Kingdom was annexed by the Romans under Emperor Trajan and integrated into the province of Arabia Petraea. During Roman rule, the region flourished. Cities like Jerash (Gerasa) became important trade centers.
The Romans built roads and infrastructure that promoted economic growth.
In addition to economic prosperity, Roman rule also brought cultural exchange and urbanization. Numerous temples, castles, theaters, and aqueducts were constructed, some of which are still well preserved today.
The Roman administration ensured a stable political structure, and the province of Arabia Petraea was strategically important for trade between the Mediterranean and Arabia. Despite Roman dominance, the region retained many of its indigenous traditions and religious customs. However, in late antiquity, Roman control began to weaken, and Jordan eventually became part of the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantine and Islamic Era
After the division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Jordan came under Byzantine rule. Christianity spread widely in the region, and numerous churches were built.
Especially notable are the intricate mosaics discovered in Byzantine churches and buildings. The city of Madaba, often referred to as the “City of Mosaics,” is home to one of the most famous mosaics in the region: the Madaba Map, a 6th-century Byzantine mosaic map of the Holy Land. These mosaics provide valuable insights into the religious and everyday life of that time and are an important cultural heritage.
In the 7th century, Islam spread, and the region was conquered by the Muslim Arabs after the Battle of Yarmouk (636 AD). Jordan became part of the Umayyad Caliphate, with its capital in Damascus. The Umayyads constructed numerous significant buildings, including the desert castles Qasr Amra, Qasr Mshatta, and Qasr Kharana.
These buildings served as hunting lodges, caravanserais, and administrative centers.
Qasr Amra is especially famous for its unique frescoes, which represent a blend of Islamic and Byzantine art.
The Umayyads also further developed the region’s infrastructure by improving roads and irrigation systems. Jordan was an important link between the Syrian capital Damascus and the holy city of Mecca. After the fall of the Umayyads in 750 AD, the Abbasids took control. The political significance of Jordan decreased during this period as the center of the caliphate was moved to Baghdad.
Later, the Abbasids were followed by the Ayyubids and the Mamluks, who controlled the region until the 16th century.
The Crusader Period
In the 11th century, the era of the Crusades began, which also affected Jordan. The Crusaders built several castles and fortresses to secure their rule over the region. Particularly significant were the castles of Kerak and Shobak, which were built by the Crusaders under Baldwin I of Jerusalem in the early 12th century.
Kerak Castle, a massive fortress on a hill, became a strategically important point for the Crusaders. It served as the headquarters for the rulers of Oultrejordain, a significant Crusader state. The castle was infamous for its lord, Raynald of Chatillon, who organized numerous raids on Muslim caravans, escalating the conflict with the Ayyubid Sultan Saladin. In 1187, Kerak was captured after a long siege by Saladin’s troops.
The Shobak Castle, located south of Kerak, was also an important Crusader stronghold. It was built in 1115 by Baldwin I and was considered the first major Crusader fortress in the region. Despite its strong fortifications, it was captured by Saladin’s forces in 1189.
With the defeat of the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187 and the subsequent loss of Jerusalem, the power of the Crusaders in the Near East greatly diminished. By the end of the 13th century, the last Crusader strongholds were conquered by the Mamluks, and the present-day Jordan came back under Islamic rule.
Ottoman Rule and the Rise of Nationalism
In 1516, Jordan was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and remained part of it for 400 years. During this time, the country was largely neglected and remained economically backward. It wasn’t until the 19th century that European powers, particularly Great Britain and France, began to show interest in the region.
During World War I, the Hashemites, led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, supported the British forces against the Ottoman Empire. The Arab Revolt (1916–1918) led to the expulsion of the Ottomans from the region, but the British and French divided the Middle East between them according to the Sykes-Picot Agreement.
British Mandate and Independence
After World War I, Transjordan was placed under British administration in 1921. Emir Abdullah I, a son of Sharif Hussein, was appointed as the ruler. In 1946, Transjordan gained full independence and became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, with Abdullah I as its first king.
Jordan in the 20th and 21st Centuries
Since its independence, Jordan has faced numerous political and economic challenges. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the country took in a large number of Palestinian refugees. In 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank but lost it to Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967.
King Hussein, who ruled from 1952 to 1999, played a key role in stabilizing the country. Despite regional conflicts, he succeeded in establishing Jordan as a relatively stable nation. In 1994, Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel, further integrating the country into the international community.
Under King Abdullah II, who has ruled since 1999, Jordan has continued to develop economically and politically. However, the country faces challenges such as the refugee crisis caused by the Syrian conflict, economic difficulties, and the fight against extremism.
Today, Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with a stable political structure and plays an important role in the Middle East. Despite economic problems, it remains a central actor in regional diplomacy and a safe haven in a often turbulent region.
Amman – The Capital with Ancient Roots
Amman, the vibrant capital of Jordan, is a city of contrasts. It blends modern urban life with ancient sites that date back to the Bronze Age. Among the most significant attractions is the Citadel of Amman, which sits atop a hill and houses ruins from various periods, including the Temple of Hercules from Roman times and the Umayyad Palace. The well-preserved Roman Theater, an impressive structure from the 2nd century, can accommodate up to 6,000 spectators and is still used for events today.
Another important cultural institution in Amman is the Jordan Museum. It houses some of the most significant archaeological finds of the country, including the famous Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as artifacts from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the biblical kingdoms of Edom, Moab, and Ammon, and the Nabataean period. The museum offers fascinating insights into Jordan’s rich history and cultural development. A highlight is the approximately 9,000-year-old ʿAin Ghazal statues—large figures made of lime plaster and reeds. The 15 statues and 15 busts are among the earliest large-scale representations of the human form and are remarkable examples of prehistoric art from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period.
Salt – The City of Trade and Heritage
The city of Salt, located to the west of Amman, was once a significant trading hub and played a central role in the exchange between East and West. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Salt experienced a period of prosperity as an administrative and economic center before Amman took over this role. Today, Salt is known for its Ottoman architecture, vibrant old town, and rich cultural heritage, and it is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Jerash – The Roman City of 1,000 Columns
Located north of Amman, Jerash is one of the best-preserved Roman cities in the world. The ancient streets, lined with majestic columns, allow visitors to immerse themselves in the time of the Roman Empire. Highlights include the impressive Hadrian’s Arch, the Oval Plaza, the Temple of Zeus, and the North and South Theaters. Every year, the famous Jerash Festival takes place here, showcasing music, theater, and dance from around the world.
Umm Qais – The Ancient City of Gadara
Umm Qais, the ancient Gadara, sits on a hill with a breathtaking view of the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan Valley. Known for its black basalt ruins, impressive theaters, and colonnaded streets, Umm Qais was once a cultural hub of the Greco-Roman world and the birthplace of significant philosophers and poets.
Umm el-Jimal – The Black Basalt City (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
One of the most extraordinary archaeological sites in Jordan is Umm el-Jimal, a city built from black basalt by the Nabataeans and later expanded by the Romans. Today, the well-preserved ruins, including multi-story houses, churches, and water storage systems, provide a fascinating glimpse into the lives of the ancient inhabitants.
Madaba – The City of Mosaics
Madaba is renowned for its Byzantine and Umayyad mosaics, some of the most beautiful in the world. The most famous attraction is the Madaba Mosaic Map in the St. George’s Church, which depicts a detailed representation of the Holy Land from the 6th century. Other impressive mosaics can be found in the Apostles’ Church, the Archaeological Park, the Burnt Palace, and the Archaeological Museum.
Another impressive UNESCO World Heritage site in Jordan is Umm ar-Rasas, an ancient site with Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic ruins. Particularly famous is the Church of St. Stephen, whose well-preserved mosaic is among the largest and most beautiful in the country, depicting various cities of the Middle East. The site, once an important trade and pilgrimage center, fascinates visitors with its stone towers, church ruins, and Roman military camps, reflecting the long and diverse history of Jordan.
Pella – One of the oldest cities in Jordan
The ancient city of Pella, located in the fertile Jordan Valley, was an important center during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The ruins include Roman baths, temples, Byzantine churches, and an amphitheater. Pella is also known for its prehistoric settlements, which date back to the Neolithic period.
Kerak – The Mighty Crusader Castle
The impressive Kerak Castle, one of the largest Crusader castles in the Middle East, stands high above the Wadi Kerak. Built in the 12th century, the fortress played a central role during the Crusades. Its massive walls, secret tunnels, and vast courtyards hint at the strategic importance of the castle.
Shobak – The Solitary Crusader Castle
Located about 30 kilometers north of Petra, Shobak Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. Unlike Kerak, Shobak is less visited but offers an equally fascinating history and spectacular views over the desert.
Ajloun – The Islamic Fortress in the Mountains
The Ajloun Castle, one of the most important Islamic fortresses in Jordan, was built in the 12th century by the Ayyubids to defend the region against the Crusaders. Strategically located on a hill, the fortress offers a spectacular view of the Jordan Valley. Today, visitors can explore the well-preserved walls, towers, and secret passages, learning more about the Islamic military history.
Petra – The Legendary Rose City
The most famous attraction in Jordan is Petra, the “Rose City,” carved into the rock over 2,000 years ago by the Nabataeans. The path through the narrow gorge Siq leads to the iconic Treasury (Al-Khazneh). Other impressive monuments include the Royal Tombs, the Roman Theater, the Great Altar, the Roman City with the Great Temple, the Byzantine Churches, and the elevated Monastery Ad-Deir. Petra is one of the seven new wonders of the world and is a must-see highlight of any trip to Jordan.
Legendary Sights and Spiritual Places
Jordan is rich in sacred sites. At the Baptism Site of Jesus on the Jordan River (Bethany Beyond the Jordan), it is believed that John the Baptist baptized Jesus.
From Mount Nebo, Moses is said to have seen the Promised Land before he died there.
The Mukawer Palace Fortress, situated high above the Dead Sea, is known as the place where John the Baptist was beheaded.
The Lot’s Cave, near the Dead Sea, is associated with the biblical story of Sodom and Gomorrah. The Cave Church in Rihab is considered the oldest church in the world!
Jordan is rich in significant Islamic sites that offer insights into the history, culture, and spiritual significance of Islam. Here are some of the most important Islamic landmarks in the country:
A 1400-year-old pistachio tree in northeastern Jordan is known as the Sahabi Tree or Tree of al-Buqayawiyya, and it is considered the only living “companion” of the Prophet Muhammad. It is believed that during a caravan journey from Mecca to Syria, a 12-year-old Muhammad rested under its shade while accompanying his uncle Abu Talib. Under this tree, the monk Bahira predicted Muhammad’s prophethood. This tree is revered by Muslims worldwide as sacred, and it is said that the prayers of anyone who prays under this tree are answered.
The Umayyad desert castles, built in the 7th and 8th centuries, are impressive testimonies to early Islamic architecture and art. Some of the most famous include:
Qasr Kharana, an imposing fortress with massive walls, whose exact purpose remains unclear to this day.
Qasr Al-Mshatta, known for its intricate facade carvings and regarded as one of the finest examples of early Islamic architecture. Parts of the facade are housed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
Qasr Amra (UNESCO World Heritage Site), famous for its well-preserved frescoes depicting daily life, hunting scenes, and constellations.
The minaret of the mosque belonging to Qasr al-Qastal is considered the oldest minaret in the world!
The King Abdullah Mosque in Amman, with its magnificent blue dome, is one of the most famous Islamic buildings in Jordan. It was built in the 1980s in honor of King Abdullah I and can accommodate up to 7,000 worshippers.
The Al-Husseini Mosque, located in the heart of Downtown Amman, was built in 1924 under King Abdullah I. It stands on the site of an older mosque from the Umayyad period. With its Ottoman architecture and central location, it is an important place of worship and gathering.
In Al-Mazar Al-Shamali, near Karak, lies the tomb of Ja‘far ibn Abi Talib, a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad, who was martyred in the Battle of Mu’tah (629 AD). This site is an important pilgrimage destination for Muslims.
About 10 kilometers east of Amman lies Kahf Al-Raqim, the alleged Cave of the Seven Sleepers, mentioned in Surah 18 (Al-Kahf) of the Quran. This site is an important destination for devout Muslims, who appreciate the historical and religious significance of the legend.
The Prophet Shuaib (Jethro), the father-in-law of Prophet Moses, is believed to be buried in Wadi Shuaib near Salt. The site attracts many pilgrims every year.
The Ottoman Pilgrim Forts in Jordan played a crucial role in securing the pilgrimage route to Mecca. These forts were built along the Hajj route to protect pilgrims from attacks by desert tribes and to provide access to water and food. Some of the most well-known forts are Qal‘at Qatrana, Qal‘at Dab‘a, and Qal‘at al-Hasa. These forts were strategically located near water sources and offered protection and provisions for the pilgrim caravans. The architecture of these forts was often simple but sturdy, and they served as visible symbols of Ottoman authority and power.
Wadi Rum
Wadi Rum is one of the most spectacular desert landscapes in the world. The red sand dunes, bizarre rock formations, and deep canyons have made it a popular filming location for movies like Lawrence of Arabia. Visitors can go on jeep safaris, ride camels, or spend the night in Bedouin tents.
Wadi Dahek – The White Desert
Less known than Wadi Rum, but equally fascinating, is Wadi Dahek, a desert landscape made of white sand and limestone. The surreal formations make it a unique destination for adventurers.
Wadi Mujib – The Grand Canyon of Jordan
Wadi Mujib, the world’s lowest nature reserve, offers spectacular canyons and hiking trails. The Siq Trail is especially popular, an adventurous hike through narrow rock gorges with waterfalls and natural pools.
Aqaba – Jordan’s Gateway to the Red Sea
The port city of Aqaba is a paradise for water sports enthusiasts. The clear waters of the Red Sea provide ideal conditions for diving and snorkeling. The colorful coral reefs and tropical fish make the underwater world unforgettable.
Dead Sea – A Natural Wonder
The Dead Sea, the lowest point on Earth, is known for its extremely salty water, which allows for effortless floating. Its mineral-rich mud baths are famous for their healing properties.
Jordan is a country full of history, culture, and natural wonders. Whether ancient cities, majestic castles, or spectacular desert landscapes – every traveler will find an unforgettable experience here.
